Advertisement
Review Article| Volume 33, ISSUE 1, P43-56, February 2023

Download started.

Ok

Structured Imaging Approach for Viral Encephalitis

  • Norlisah Mohd Ramli
    Correspondence
    Corresponding author. Department of Biomedical Imaging, University of Malaya Medical Centre, 12B South Tower, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia.
    Affiliations
    Department of Biomedical Imaging, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Jln Profesor Diraja Ungku Aziz, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
    Search for articles by this author
  • Yun Jung Bae
    Affiliations
    Department of Radiology, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, Seoul National University College of Medicine, 82, Gumi-ro 173 Beon-gil, Bundang-gu, Seongnam-si, Gyeonggi-do 13620, Republic of Korea
    Search for articles by this author

      Keywords

      To read this article in full you will need to make a payment

      Purchase one-time access:

      Academic & Personal: 24 hour online accessCorporate R&D Professionals: 24 hour online access
      One-time access price info
      • For academic or personal research use, select 'Academic and Personal'
      • For corporate R&D use, select 'Corporate R&D Professionals'

      Subscribers receive full online access to your subscription and archive of back issues up to and including 2002.

      Content published before 2002 is available via pay-per-view purchase only.

      Subscribe:

      Subscribe to Neuroimaging Clinics
      Already a print subscriber? Claim online access
      Already an online subscriber? Sign in
      Institutional Access: Sign in to ScienceDirect

      References

        • Kar A.
        • Dhanaraj M.
        • Dedeepiya D.
        • et al.
        Acute encephalitis syndrome following scrub typhus infection.
        Indian J Crit Care Med. 2014; 18: 453-455
        • Granerod J.
        • Tam C.C.
        • Crowcroft N.S.
        • et al.
        Challenge of the unknown. A systematic review of acute encephalitis in non-outbreak situations.
        Neurology. 2010; 75: 924-932
        • Boucher A.
        • Herrmann J.L.
        • Morand P.
        • et al.
        Epidemiology of infectious encephalitis causes in 2016.
        Med Mal Infect. 2017; 47: 221-235
        • Bookstaver P.B.
        • Mohorn P.L.
        • Shah A.
        • et al.
        Management of Viral Central Nervous System Infections: A Primer for Clinicians.
        J Cent Nerv Syst Dis. 2017; 9 (1179573517703342)
        • Bechter K.
        Encephalitis, Mild Encephalitis, Neuroprogression, or Encephalopathy-Not Merely a Question of Terminology.
        Front Psychiatry. 2019; 9: 782
        • Goel S.
        • Chakravarti A.
        • Mantan M.
        • et al.
        Diagnostic Approach to Viral Acute Encephalitis Syndrome (AES) in Paediatric Age Group: A Study from New Delhi.
        J Clin Diagn Res. 2017; 11: Dc25-dc29
        • Chaudhuri A.
        • Kennedy P.G.
        Diagnosis and treatment of viral encephalitis.
        Postgrad Med J. 2002; 78: 575-583
        • Gonzalez G.
        • Carr M.J.
        • Kobayashi M.
        • et al.
        Enterovirus-Associated Hand-Foot and Mouth Disease and Neurological Complications in Japan and the Rest of the World.
        Int J Mol Sci. 2019; 20: 5201
        • Kumar R.
        Understanding and managing acute encephalitis.
        F1000Res. 2020; 9
        • Dalmau J.
        • Graus F.
        • Villarejo A.
        • et al.
        Clinical analysis of anti-Ma2-associated encephalitis.
        Brain. 2004; 127: 1831-1844
        • Jayaraman K.
        • Rangasami R.
        • Chandrasekharan A.
        Magnetic Resonance Imaging Findings in Viral Encephalitis: A Pictorial Essay.
        J Neurosci Rural Pract. 2018; 9: 556-560
        • Granerod J.
        • Ambrose H.E.
        • Davies N.W.
        • et al.
        Causes of encephalitis and differences in their clinical presentations in England: a multicentre, population-based prospective study.
        Lancet Infect Dis. 2010; 10: 835-844
        • Aurelius E.
        • Johansson B.
        • Sköldenberg B.
        • et al.
        Encephalitis in immunocompetent patients due to herpes simplex virus type 1 or 2 as determined by type-specific polymerase chain reaction and antibody assays of cerebrospinal fluid.
        J Med Virol. 1993; 39: 179-186
        • Piret J.
        • Boivin G.
        Immunomodulatory Strategies in Herpes Simplex Virus Encephalitis.
        Clin Microbiol Rev. 2020; 33
        • Kolski H.
        • Ford-Jones E.L.
        • Richardson S.
        • et al.
        Etiology of acute childhood encephalitis at The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, 1994-1995.
        Clin Infect Dis. 1998; 26: 398-409
        • Glaser C.A.
        • Honarmand S.
        • Anderson L.J.
        • et al.
        Beyond viruses: clinical profiles and etiologies associated with encephalitis.
        Clin Infect Dis. 2006; 43: 1565-1577
        • Venkatesan A.
        • Tunkel A.R.
        • Bloch K.C.
        • et al.
        Case definitions, diagnostic algorithms, and priorities in encephalitis: consensus statement of the international encephalitis consortium.
        Clin Infect Dis. 2013; 57: 1114-1128
        • Domingues R.B.
        • Fink M.C.
        • Tsanaclis A.M.
        • et al.
        Diagnosis of herpes simplex encephalitis by magnetic resonance imaging and polymerase chain reaction assay of cerebrospinal fluid.
        J Neurol Sci. 1998; 157: 148-153
        • Stahl J.P.
        • Mailles A.
        Herpes simplex virus encephalitis update.
        Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2019; 32: 239-243
        • Renard D.
        • Nerrant E.
        • Lechiche C.
        DWI and FLAIR imaging in herpes simplex encephalitis: a comparative and topographical analysis.
        J Neurol. 2015; 262: 2101-2105
        • Singh T.D.
        • Fugate J.E.
        • Hocker S.
        • et al.
        Predictors of outcome in HSV encephalitis.
        J Neurol. 2016; 263: 277-289
        • Sili U.
        • Kaya A.
        • Mert A.
        Herpes simplex virus encephalitis: clinical manifestations, diagnosis and outcome in 106 adult patients.
        J Clin Virol. 2014; 60: 112-118
        • Fida M.
        • Hamdi A.M.
        • Bryson A.
        • et al.
        Long-term Outcomes of Patients With Human Herpesvirus 6 Encephalitis.
        Open Forum Infect Dis. 2019; 6: ofz269
        • Santpere G.
        • Telford M.
        • Andrés-Benito P.
        • et al.
        The Presence of Human Herpesvirus 6 in the Brain in Health and Disease.
        Biomolecules. 2020; 10: 1520
        • Eimer W.A.
        • Vijaya Kumar D.K.
        • Navalpur Shanmugam N.K.
        • et al.
        Alzheimer's Disease-Associated β-Amyloid Is Rapidly Seeded by Herpesviridae to Protect against Brain Infection.
        Neuron. 2018; 99: 56-63.e3
        • Noguchi T.
        • Yoshiura T.
        • Hiwatashi A.
        • et al.
        CT and MRI findings of human herpesvirus 6-associated encephalopathy: comparison with findings of herpes simplex virus encephalitis.
        AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2010; 194: 754-760
        • Handley G.
        • Hasbun R.
        • Okhuysen P.
        Human herpesvirus 6 and central nervous system disease in oncology patients: A retrospective case series and literature review.
        J Clin Virol. 2021; 136: 104740
        • Noguchi T.
        • Mihara F.
        • Yoshiura T.
        • et al.
        MR imaging of human herpesvirus-6 encephalopathy after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in adults.
        AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2006; 27: 2191-2195
        • Yassin A.
        • Al-Mistarehi A.H.
        • El-Salem K.
        • et al.
        Clinical, radiological, and electroencephalographic features of HHV-6 encephalitis following hematopoietic stem cell transplantation.
        Ann Med Surg (Lond). 2020; 60: 81-86
        • Liu D.
        • Wang X.
        • Wang Y.
        • et al.
        Detection of EBV and HHV6 in the Brain Tissue of Patients with Rasmussen's Encephalitis.
        Virol Sin. 2018; 33: 402-409
        • Meng Q.
        • Zou Y.-L.
        • Bu H.
        • et al.
        Imaging and cytological analysis of 92 patients with Japanese encephalitis.
        Neuroimmunology and Neuroinflammation. 2014; 1: 29-34
        • Misra U.K.
        • Kalita J.
        Overview: Japanese encephalitis.
        Prog Neurobiol. 2010; 91: 108-120
        • Umenai T.
        • Krzysko R.
        • Bektimirov T.A.
        • et al.
        Japanese encephalitis: current worldwide status.
        Bull World Health Organ. 1985; 63: 625-631
        • Zheng Y.
        • Li M.
        • Wang H.
        • et al.
        Japanese encephalitis and Japanese encephalitis virus in mainland China.
        Rev Med Virol. 2012; 22: 301-322
        • Helfferich J.
        • Knoester M.
        • Van Leer-Buter C.C.
        • et al.
        Acute flaccid myelitis and enterovirus D68: lessons from the past and present.
        Eur J Pediatr. 2019; 178: 1305-1315
        • Pleasure S.J.
        • Fischbein N.J.
        Correlation of clinical and neuroimaging findings in a case of rabies encephalitis.
        Arch Neurol. 2000; 57: 1765-1769
        • Chuang Y.Y.
        • Huang Y.C.
        Enteroviral infection in neonates.
        J Microbiol Immunol Infect. 2019; 52: 851-857
        • Kalita J.
        • Bhoi S.K.
        • Bastia J.K.
        • et al.
        Paralytic rabies: MRI findings and review of literature.
        Neurol India. 2014; 62: 662-664
        • Rao A.
        • Pimpalwar Y.
        • Mukherjee A.
        • et al.
        Serial brain MRI findings in a rare survivor of rabies encephalitis.
        Indian J Radiol Imaging. 2017; 27: 286-289
        • Sugaya N.
        Influenza-associated encephalopathy in Japan.
        Semin Pediatr Infect Dis. 2002; 13: 79-84
        • Fujimoto S.
        • Kobayashi M.
        • Uemura O.
        • et al.
        PCR on cerebrospinal fluid to show influenza-associated acute encephalopathy or encephalitis.
        Lancet. 1998; 352: 873-875
        • Chen Y.C.
        • Lo C.P.
        • Chang T.P.
        Novel influenza A (H1N1)-associated encephalopathy/encephalitis with severe neurological sequelae and unique image features--a case report.
        J Neurol Sci. 2010; 298: 110-113
        • Lian Z.Y.
        • Huang B.
        • He S.R.
        • et al.
        Diffusion-weighted imaging in the diagnosis of enterovirus 71 encephalitis.
        Acta Radiol. 2012; 53: 208-213
        • Maloney J.A.
        • Mirsky D.M.
        • Messacar K.
        • et al.
        MRI findings in children with acute flaccid paralysis and cranial nerve dysfunction occurring during the 2014 enterovirus D68 outbreak.
        AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2015; 36: 245-250
        • Hixon A.M.
        • Frost J.
        • Rudy M.J.
        • et al.
        Understanding Enterovirus D68-Induced Neurologic Disease: A Basic Science Review.
        Viruses. 2019; 11: 821
        • World Health Organization
        Regional Office for the Western, P., A guide to clinical management and public health response for hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD).
        WHO Regional Office for the Western Pacific, Manila2011
        • Casas-Alba D.
        • de Sevilla M.F.
        • Valero-Rello A.
        • et al.
        Outbreak of brainstem encephalitis associated with enterovirus-A71 in Catalonia, Spain (2016): a clinical observational study in a children's reference centre in Catalonia.
        Clin Microbiol Infect. 2017; 23: 874-881
        • Jones E.
        • Pillay T.D.
        • Liu F.
        • et al.
        Outcomes following severe hand foot and mouth disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis.
        Eur J paediatric Neurol. 2018; 22: 763-773
        • Li J.
        • Chen F.
        • Liu T.
        • et al.
        MRI findings of neurological complications in hand-foot-mouth disease by enterovirus 71 infection.
        Int J Neurosci. 2012; 122: 338-344
        • Hankins D.G.
        • Rosekrans J.A.
        Overview, prevention, and treatment of rabies.
        Mayo Clin Proc. 2004; 79: 671-676
        • Netravathi M.
        • Udani V.
        • Mani Rs
        • et al.
        Unique clinical and imaging findings in a first ever documented PCR positive rabies survival patient: A case report.
        J Clin Virol. 2015; 70: 83-88
        • Mahadevan A.
        • Suja M.S.
        • Mani R.S.
        • et al.
        Perspectives in Diagnosis and Treatment of Rabies Viral Encephalitis: Insights from Pathogenesis.
        Neurotherapeutics. 2016; 13: 477-492
        • Naghavi M.
        • W.H.
        • Lozano R.
        • et al.
        Global, regional, and national age-sex specific all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 240 causes of death, 1990-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013.
        Lancet. 2015; 385: 117-171
        • Lynch M.
        • Lee B.
        • Azimi P.
        • et al.
        Rotavirus and central nervous system symptoms: cause or contaminant? Case reports and review.
        Clin Infect Dis. 2001; 33: 932-938
        • Abe T.
        • Kobayashi M.
        • Araki K.
        • et al.
        Infantile convulsions with mild gastroenteritis.
        Brain Dev. 2000; 22: 301-306
        • Li C.-Y.
        • Li C.-H.J.N.A.
        Probable etiology of mild encephalopathy with reversible isolated lesions in the corpus callosum in children: A review of 20 cases from northern China.
        . 2018; 23: 153-158
        • Paketçi C.
        • Edem P.
        • Okur D.
        • et al.
        Rotavirus encephalopathy with concomitant acute cerebellitis: report of a case and review of the literature.
        Turk J Pediatr. 2020; 62: 119-124
        • Starkey J.
        • Kobayashi N.
        • Numaguchi Y.
        • et al.
        Cytotoxic Lesions of the Corpus Callosum That Show Restricted Diffusion: Mechanisms, Causes, and Manifestations.
        Radiographics. 2017; 37: 562-576
        • Shaw J.
        • Gershon A.A.
        Varicella Virus Vaccination in the United States.
        Viral Immunol. 2018; 31: 96-103
        • Nagel M.A.
        • Gilden D.
        Neurological complications of varicella zoster virus reactivation.
        Curr Opin Neurol. 2014; 27: 356-360
        • Gilden D.
        • Cohrs R.J.
        • Mahalingam R.
        • et al.
        Varicella zoster virus vasculopathies: diverse clinical manifestations, laboratory features, pathogenesis, and treatment.
        Lancet Neurol. 2009; 8: 731-740
        • Prelack M.S.
        • Patterson K.R.
        • Berger J.R.
        Varicella zoster virus rhombencephalomyelitis following radiation therapy for oropharyngeal carcinoma.
        J Clin Neurosci. 2016; 25: 164-166
        • Orme H.T.
        • Smith A.G.
        • Nagel M.A.
        • et al.
        VZV spinal cord infarction identified by diffusion-weighted MRI (DWI).
        Neurology. 2007; 69: 398-400
        • Becerra J.C.
        • Sieber R.
        • Martinetti G.
        • et al.
        Infection of the central nervous system caused by varicella zoster virus reactivation: a retrospective case series study.
        Int J Infect Dis. 2013; 17: e529-e534
        • Inagaki A.
        • Toyoda T.
        • Mutou M.
        • et al.
        Ramsay Hunt syndrome associated with solitary nucleus, spinal trigeminal nucleus and tract, and vestibular nucleus involvement on sequential magnetic resonance imaging.
        J Neurovirol. 2018; 24: 776-779
        • Li G.H.
        • Ning Z.J.
        • Liu Y.M.
        • et al.
        Neurological Manifestations of Dengue Infection.
        Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2017; 7: 449
        • Almeida Bentes A.
        • Kroon E.G.
        • Romanelli R.M.C.
        Neurological manifestations of pediatric arboviral infections in the Americas.
        J Clin Virol. 2019; 116: 49-57
        • Soares C.
        • Puccioni-Sohler M.
        Dengue encephalitis: Suggestion for case definition.
        J Neurol Sci. 2011; 306: 165
        • Wan Sulaiman W.A.
        • Inche Mat L.N.
        • Hashim H.Z.
        • et al.
        Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis in dengue viral infection.
        J Clin Neurosci. 2017; 43: 25-31
        • Jugpal T.S.
        • Dixit R.
        • Garg A.
        • et al.
        Spectrum of findings on magnetic resonance imaging of the brain in patients with neurological manifestations of dengue fever.
        Radiol Bras. 2017; 50: 285-290
        • Sundaram C.
        • Uppin S.G.
        • Dakshinamurthy K.V.
        • et al.
        Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis following dengue hemorrhagic fever.
        Neurol India. 2010; 58: 599-601
        • Cortese I.
        • Reich D.S.
        • Nath A.
        Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy and the spectrum of JC virus-related disease.
        Nat Rev Neurol. 2021; 17: 37-51
        • Cece H.
        • Tokay L.
        • Yildiz S.
        • et al.
        Epidemiological findings and clinical and magnetic resonance presentations in subacute sclerosing panencephalitis.
        J Int Med Res. 2011; 39: 594-602
        • Anlar B.
        • Köse G.
        • Gürer Y.
        • et al.
        Changing epidemiological features of subacute sclerosing panencephalitis.
        Infection. 2001; 29: 192-195
        • Campbell H.
        • Andrews N.
        • Brown K.E.
        • et al.
        Review of the effect of measles vaccination on the epidemiology of SSPE.
        Int J Epidemiol. 2007; 36: 1334-1348
        • Zilber N.
        • Kahana E.
        Environmental risk factors for subacute sclerosing panencephalitis (SSPE).
        Acta Neurol Scand. 1998; 98: 49-54
        • Gutierrez J.
        • Issacson R.S.
        • Koppel B.S.
        Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis: an update.
        Dev Med Child Neurol. 2010; 52: 901-907
        • Tuncay R.
        • Akman-Demir G.
        • Gökyigit A.
        • et al.
        MRI in subacute sclerosing panencephalitis.
        Neuroradiology. 1996; 38: 636-640
        • Oguz K.K.
        • Celebi A.
        • Anlar B.
        MR imaging, diffusion-weighted imaging and MR spectroscopy findings in acute rapidly progressive subacute sclerosing panencephalitis.
        Brain Dev. 2007; 29: 306-311