Advertisement
Review Article| Volume 33, ISSUE 1, P147-165, February 2023

Human Immunodeficiency Virus

Opportunistic Infections and Beyond

      Keywords

      To read this article in full you will need to make a payment

      Purchase one-time access:

      Academic & Personal: 24 hour online accessCorporate R&D Professionals: 24 hour online access
      One-time access price info
      • For academic or personal research use, select 'Academic and Personal'
      • For corporate R&D use, select 'Corporate R&D Professionals'

      Subscribers receive full online access to your subscription and archive of back issues up to and including 2002.

      Content published before 2002 is available via pay-per-view purchase only.

      Subscribe:

      Subscribe to Neuroimaging Clinics
      Already a print subscriber? Claim online access
      Already an online subscriber? Sign in
      Institutional Access: Sign in to ScienceDirect

      References

        • Smith A.B.
        • Smirniotopoulos J.G.
        • Rushing E.J.
        Central nervous system infections associated with human immunodeficiency virus infection: Radiologicpathologic correlation.
        Radiographics. 2008; 28: 2033-2058
        • Tan I.L.
        • Smith B.R.
        • von Geldern G.
        • et al.
        HIV-associated opportunistic infections of the CNS.
        Lancet Neurol. 2012; 11: 605-617
        • Thakur K.T.
        • Boubour A.
        • Saylor D.
        • et al.
        Global HIV neurology: A comprehensive review.
        AIDS. 2019; 33: 163-184
        • Connor M.D.
        • Lammie G.A.
        • Bell J.E.
        • et al.
        Cerebral infarction in adult AIDS patients: Observations from the Edinburgh HIV Autopsy Cohort.
        Stroke. 2000; 31: 2117-2126
        • Dube M.P.
        • Stein J.H.
        • AJ
        Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the Use of Antiretroviral Agents in Adults and Adolescents with HIV.
        Dep Heal Hum Serv. 2018; 40 (Available at:)
        • Winston A.
        • Antinori A.
        • Cinque P.
        • et al.
        Defining cerebrospinal fluid HIV RNA escape: Editorial review AIDS.
        Aids. 2019; 33: S107-S111
        • Liu N.Q.
        • Lossinsky A.S.
        • Popik W.
        • et al.
        Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Enters Brain Microvascular Endothelia by Macropinocytosis Dependent on Lipid Rafts and the Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Signaling Pathway.
        J Virol. 2002; 76: 6689-6700
        • Antinori A.
        • Arendt G.
        • Becker J.T.
        • et al.
        HHS Public Access. 2015; 69: 1789-1799
        • Clifford D.B.
        • Ances B.M.
        HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder.
        Lancet Infect Dis. 2013; 13: 976-986
        • Fennema-Notestine C.
        • Ellis R.J.
        • Archibald S.L.
        • et al.
        Increases in brain white matter abnormalities and subcortical gray matter are linked to CD4 recovery in HIV infection.
        J Neurovirol. 2013; 19: 393-401
        • Ances B.M.
        • Sisti D.
        • Vaida F.
        • et al.
        Resting cerebral blood flow.
        Neurology. 2009; 73: 702-708
        • Melrose R.J.
        • Tinaz S.
        • Castelo J.M.B.
        • et al.
        Compromised fronto-striatal functioning in HIV: An fMRI investigation of semantic event sequencing.
        Behav Brain Res. 2008; 188: 337-347
        • Marcus J.L.
        • Leyden W.A.
        • Chao C.R.
        • et al.
        HIV infection and incidence of ischemic stroke.
        Aids. 2014; 28: 1911-1919
        • Chow F.C.
        • Regan S.
        • Zanni M.V.
        • et al.
        Elevated ischemic stroke risk among women living with HIV infection.
        Aids. 2018; 32: 59-67
        • Sico J.J.
        • Chang C.C.H.
        • So-Armah K.
        • et al.
        HIV status and the risk of ischemic stroke among men.
        Neurology. 2015; 84: 1933-1940
        • Chow F.C.
        • He W.
        • Bacchetti P.
        • et al.
        Elevated rates of intracerebral hemorrhage in individuals from a US clinical care HIV cohort.
        Neurology. 2014; 83: 1705-1711
        • Goldstein D.A.
        • Timpone J.
        • Cupps T.R.
        HIV-associated intracranial aneurysmal vasculopathy in adults.
        J Rheumatol. 2010; 37: 226-233
        • Gutierrez J.
        • Glenn M.
        • Isaacson R.S.
        • et al.
        Thinning of the arterial media layer as a possible preclinical stage in HIV vasculopathy: A pilot study.
        Stroke. 2012; 43: 1156-1158
        • Robbs J.V.
        • Paruk N.
        Management of HIV Vasculopathy - A South African Experience.
        Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2010; 39https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejvs.2009.12.028
        • Gutierrez J.
        • Ortiz G.
        HIV/AIDS patients with HIV vasculopathy and VZV vasculitis: A case series.
        Clin Neuroradiol. 2011; 21: 145-151
        • Chetty R.
        • Batitang S.
        • Nair R.
        Large artery vasculopathy in HIV-positive patients: Another vasculitic enigma.
        Hum Pathol. 2000; 31: 374-379
        • Brent Tipping MBChB.
        • Linda de Villiers MBChB.
        • Candy Sally
        • et al.
        Stroke caused by human immunodeficiency virus-associated vasculopathy.
        Arch Neurol. 2006; 63: 1640-1642
        • Lammie G.A.
        • Hewlett R.H.
        • Schoeman J.F.
        • et al.
        Tuberculous cerebrovascular disease: A review.
        J Infect. 2009; 59: 156-166
        • Zetola N.M.
        • Klausner J.D.
        Syphilis and HIV infection: An update.
        Clin Infect Dis. 2007; 44: 1222-1228
        • Nagel M.
        • Cohrs R.
        • Mahalingam R.
        • et al.
        The varicella zoster virus vasculopathies: Clinical, CSF, imaging, and virologic features.
        Neurology. 2008; 70: 853-860
        • Cruse B.
        • Cysique L.A.
        • Markus R.
        • et al.
        Cerebrovascular disease in HIV-infected individuals in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy.
        J Neurovirol. 2012; 18: 264-276
        • Bowen L.N.
        • Smith B.
        • Reich D.
        • et al.
        HIV-associated opportunistic CNS infections: Pathophysiology, diagnosis and treatment.
        Nat Rev Neurol. 2016; 12: 662-674
      1. C C Tchoyoson Lim. HIV and related conditions. In: Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Neurological Diseases in Tropics. ; 2014:198-205. doi:DOI: 10.5005/jp/books/12139_13.

        • Lee G.T.
        • Antelo F.
        • Mlikotic A.A.
        Best cases from the AFIP: Cerebral toxoplasmosis.
        Radiographics. 2009; 29: 1200-1205
        • Grant I.H.
        • Gold J.W.M.
        • Rosenblum M.
        • et al.
        Toxoplasma gondii serology in HIV-infected patients: The development of central nervous system toxoplasmosis in AIDS.
        Aids. 1990; 4: 519-521
        • Chacko G.
        Parasitic diseases of the central nervous system.
        Semin Diagn Pathol. 2010; 27: 167-185
        • Kumar G.G.S.
        • Mahadevan A.
        • Guruprasad A.S.
        • et al.
        Eccentric target sign in cerebral toxoplasmosis: Neuropathological correlate to the imaging feature.
        J Magn Reson Imaging. 2010; 31: 1469-1472
        • Moritani Toshio
        • Ota Yoshiaki
        • Patricia A.
        • et al.
        Infectious diseases. In: diffusion-weighted MR imaging of the brain, Head and Neck, and spine.
        Springer Nature, Switzerland AG2021: 429-486
        • Schaller M.A.
        • Wicke F.
        • Foerch C.
        • et al.
        Central Nervous System Tuberculosis: Etiology, Clinical Manifestations and Neuroradiological Features.
        Clin Neuroradiol. 2019; 29: 3-18
        • leonard John M.
        Central nervous system tuberculosis.
        Microbiol Spectr. 2017; 5https://doi.org/10.1128/microbiolspec.TNMI7-0044-2017
        • Thurnher M.M.
        • Donovan Post M.J.
        Neuroimaging in the Brain in HIV-1-Infected Patients.
        Neuroimaging Clin N Am. 2008; 18: 93-117
        • Loyse A.
        • Moodley A.
        • Rich P.
        • et al.
        Neurological, visual, and MRI brain scan findings in 87 South African patients with HIV-associated cryptococcal meningoencephalitis.
        J Infect. 2015; 70: 668-675
        • Offiah C.E.
        • Naseer A.
        Spectrum of imaging appearances of intracranial cryptococcal infection in HIV/AIDS patients in the anti-retroviral therapy era.
        Clin Radiol. 2016; 71: 9-17
        • Post M.J.D.
        • Thurnher M.M.
        • Clifford D.B.
        • et al.
        CNS-immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in the setting of HIV infection, Part 1: Overview and discussion of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy-immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome and cryptococcal- Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome.
        Am J Neuroradiol. 2013; 34: 1297-1307
        • Post M.J.D.
        • Hensley G.
        • Moskowitz L.B.
        • et al.
        Cytomegalic inclusion virus encephalitis in patients with AIDS: CT, clinical, and pathological correlation.
        Am J Roentgenol. 1986; 146: 1229-1234
        • Gheuens S.
        • Pierone G.
        • Peeters P.
        • et al.
        Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in individuals with minimal or occult immunosuppression.
        J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2010; 81: 247-254
        • Bag A.K.
        • Curé J.K.
        • Chapman P.R.
        • et al.
        JC virus infection of the brain.
        Am J Neuroradiol. 2010; 31: 1564-1576
        • Wüthrich C.
        • Cheng Y.M.
        • Joseph J.T.
        • et al.
        Frequent infection of cerebellar granule cell neurons by polyomavirus JC in progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy.
        J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 2009; 68: 15-25
        • Cinque P.
        • Koralnik I.J.
        • Gerevini S.
        • et al.
        Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in HIV-1 infection.
        Lancet Infect Dis. 2009; 9: 625-636
        • Falcó V.
        • Olmo M.
        • Del Saz S.V.
        • et al.
        Influence of HAART on the Clinical Course of HIV-1-infected patients with progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: Results of an observational multicenter study.
        J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2008; 49: 26-31
        • Lima M.A.
        • Drislane F.W.
        • Koralnik I.J.
        Seizures and their outcome in progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy.
        Neurology. 2006; 66: 262-264
        • Berger J.R.
        • Aksamit A.J.
        • Clifford D.B.
        • et al.
        PML diagnostic criteria: Consensus statement from the AAN neuroinfectious disease section.
        Neurology. 2013; 80: 1430-1438
        • Whiteman M.L.H.
        • Post M.J.D.
        • Berger J.R.
        • et al.
        Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in 47 HIV-seropositive patients: Neuroimaging with clinical and pathologic correlation.
        Radiology. 1993; 187: 233-240
        • Mudau A.
        • Suleman F.E.
        • Schutte C.M.
        • et al.
        Isolated posterior fossa involvement of progressive multifocal leucoencephalopathy in HIV: A case series with review of the literature.
        South Afr J Radiol. 2017; 21: 1-6
        • Bernal-Cano F.
        • Joseph J.T.
        • Koralnik I.J.
        Spinal cord lesions of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in an acquired immunodeficiency syndrome patient.
        J Neurovirol. 2007; 13: 474-476
        • Murayi R.
        • Schmitt J.
        • Woo J.H.
        • et al.
        Spinal cord progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy detected premortem by MRI.
        J Neurovirol. 2015; 21: 688-690
        • Bergui M.
        • Bradac G.B.
        • Oguz K.K.
        • et al.
        Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: Diffusion-weighted imaging and pathological correlations.
        Neuroradiology. 2004; 46: 22-25
        • Godi C.
        • De Vita E.
        • Tombetti E.
        • et al.
        High b-value diffusion-weighted imaging in progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in HIV patients.
        Eur Radiol. 2017; 27: 3593-3599
        • Finelli P.F.
        • Foxman E.B.
        The etiology of ring lesions on diffusion-weighted imaging.
        Neuroradiol J. 2014; 27: 280-287
        • Thurnher M.M.
        • Boban J.
        • Rieger A.
        • et al.
        Susceptibility-weighted MR imaging hypointense rim in progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy: The end point of neuroinflammation and a potential outcome predictor.
        Am J Neuroradiol. 2019; 40: 994-1000
        • Katz-Brull R.
        • Lenkinski R.E.
        • Du Pasquier R.A.
        • et al.
        Elevation of myoinositol is associated with disease containment in progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy.
        Neurology. 2004; 63: 897-900
        • Du Pasquier R.A.
        • Corey S.
        • Margolin D.H.
        • et al.
        Productive infection of cerebellar granule cell neurons by JC virus in an HIV+ individual.
        Neurology. 2003; 61: 775-782
        • Wijburg M.T.
        • Van Oosten B.W.
        • Murk J.L.
        • et al.
        Heterogeneous imaging characteristics of JC virus granule cell neuronopathy (GCN): A case series and review of the literature.
        J Neurol. 2015; 262: 65-73
        • Wüthrich C.
        • Dang X.
        • Westmoreland S.
        • et al.
        Fulminant JC virus encephalopathy with productive infection of cortical pyramidal neurons.
        Ann Neurol. 2009; 65: 742-748
        • Brandsma D.
        • Bromberg J.E.C.
        1st ed. Primary CNS lymphoma in HIV infection. 152. Elsevier B.V., 2018https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63849-6.00014-1
        • Javadi S.
        • Menias C.O.
        • Karbasian N.
        • et al.
        HIV-related malignancies and mimics: Imaging findings and management.
        Radiographics. 2018; 38: 2051-2068
        • Bathla G.
        • Hegde A.
        Lymphomatous involvement of the central nervous system.
        Clin Radiol. 2016; 71: 602-609
        • Dibble E.H.
        • Boxerman J.L.
        • Baird G.L.
        • et al.
        Toxoplasmosis versus lymphoma: Cerebral lesion characterization using DSC-MRI revisited.
        Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2017; 152: 84-89
        • Hoffman John M.
        • Waskin Hetty A.
        • Tobias Schifter
        • et al.
        FDG-PET in differentiating lymphoma from nonmalignant central nervous system lesions in patients with AIDS.
        J Nucl Med. 1993; 34: 567-575
        • Johnson T.
        • Nath A.
        Neurological complications of immune reconstitution in HIV-infected populations.
        Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2010; 1184: 106-120
        • Shelburne S.A.
        • Visnegarwala F.
        • Darcourt J.
        • et al.
        Incidence and risk factors for immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome during highly active antiretroviral therapy.
        Aids. 2005; 19: 399-406
        • Müller M.
        • Wandel S.
        • Colebunders R.
        • et al.
        Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in patients starting antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis.
        Lancet Infect Dis. 2010; 10: 251-261
        • Post M.J.D.
        • Thurnher M.M.
        • Clifford D.B.
        • et al.
        CNS-immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in the setting of HIV infection, part 2: Discussion of neuro-immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome with and without other pathogens.
        Am J Neuroradiol. 2013; 34: 1308-1318
        • Bahr N.
        • Boulware D.R.
        • Marais S.
        • et al.
        Central nervous system immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome.
        Curr Infect Dis Rep. 2013; 15: 583-593
        • Lescure F.X.
        • Moulignier A.
        • Savatovsky J.
        • et al.
        CD8 encephalitis in HIV-infected patients receiving ART: A treatable entity.
        Clin Infect Dis. 2013; 57: 101-108
        • Lucas S.B.
        • Wong K.T.
        • Nightingale S.
        • et al.
        HIV-Associated CD8 Encephalitis: A UK Case Series and Review of Histopathologically Confirmed Cases.
        Front Neurol. 2021; : 1-20https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2021.628296
        • Salam S.
        • Mihalova T.
        • Ustianowski A.
        • et al.
        Relapsing CD8+ encephalitis-looking for a solution.
        BMJ Case Rep. 2016; https://doi.org/10.1136/bcr-2016
        • Kerr C.
        • Adle-Biassette H.
        • Moloney P.B.
        • et al.
        CD8 encephalitis with CSF EBV viraemia and HIV drug resistance, a case series.
        Brain Behav Immun - Heal. 2020; : 100164https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbih.2020.100164